GENERATING SECURITY EVENT CORRELATION RULES
THROUGH K-MEANS CLUSTERING
Nelson Uto, Helen Teixeira, Andre Blazko, Marcos Ferreira de Paula, Renata Cicilini Teixeira
CPqD Telecom & IT Solutions
Rod. Campinas-Mogi Mirim (SP-340) km 118.5 CEP 13086-902 Campinas-SP Brazil
Mamede Lima Marques
Universidade de Brasilia
Campus Universitario Darcy Ribeiro, CP 4422, CEP 70919-970 Brasilia-DF Brazil
Keywords:
Network security, security event correlation, semi-automatic rule generation, data mining.
Abstract:
Current implementations of intrusion detection systems (IDSs) have two drawbacks: 1) they normally gen-
erate far too many false positives, overloading human operators to such an extent that they can not respond
effectively to the real alerts; 2) depending on the proportion of genuine attacks within the total network traffic,
an IDS may never be effective. One approach to overcoming these obstacles is to correlate information from
a wide variety of networks sensors, not just IDSs, in order to obtain a more complete picture on which to base
decisions as to whether alerted events represent malicious activity or not. The challenge in such an analysis is
the generation of the correlation rules that are to be used. At present, creating these rules is a time consuming
manual task that requires expert knowledge. This work describes how data mining, specifically the k-means
clustering technique, can be employed to assist in the semi-automatic generation of such correlation rules.
1 INTRODUCTION
Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) aim to detect mali-
cious or suspicious activity against a system. Current
IDS implementations suffer from the fact that they
trigger many false positives (false alarms), inundat-
ing their human operators with so much information
that they are not able to effectively respond to the real
threats. Another problem with IDSs is that real at-
tacks can often go unnoticed (false negatives), espe-
cially in the case of new types of attacks for which
detection signatures have not yet been created. In
fact, when discussing the drawbacks of IDSs, it is im-
perative to take into consideration that the process of
detecting intrusions might be harder than previously
thought (Axelsson, 1999). Based on a probabilistic
model, Axelsson showed that the factor limiting the
effectiveness of an IDS (i.e. the capability of detect-
ing real attacks and raising few false alarms) is the
false positive rate rather than the detection rate. The
worrying issue of Axelsson’s analysis was that if at-
tacks are rare compared to valid behaviour, then one
must work with an unrealistically low false positive
rate in order to have an effective IDS.
One approach to improve the effectiveness of an
IDS is to work on a higher abstraction level. The idea
is to correlate alerts collected by several sensors (e.g.
firewalls, IDSs, routers, etc.) placed in a network, in
order to have more evidence on which to base a de-
cision as to whether a detected activity should be la-
beled suspicious or not. The drawback of this tech-
nique is that it is not easy to manually write the cor-
relation rules that are to be used to perform this task.
Furthermore, expert knowledge is required for this.
Up until now, there have been few studies on mech-
anisms for automatically generating correlation rules.
Examples include (Burns et al., 2000) and (Kreibich
and Crowcroft, 2004) whose techniques and results
are discussed in Section 3.2. In this paper, we present
preliminary results from using k-means clustering for
the semi-automatic generation of security event cor-
relation rules. Our initial work has applied this tech-
nique only to alerts from IDSs to find correlation pat-
terns. Our next step will be to apply k-means cluster-
ing to alerts generated by heterogenous sensors.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows:
Section 2 introduces concepts, data sources and some
techniques used for security event correlation. Sec-
tion 3 introduces the k-means data mining technique
and discusses related work that has been performed
to date in this area. Section 4 proposes how k-means
clustering may be exploited for the semi-automatic
generation of correlation rules and finally Section 5
presents the next steps that are to be performed in this
analysis.
375
Uto N., Teixeira H., Blazko A., Ferreira de Paula M., Cicilini Teixeira R. and Lima Marques M. (2005).
GENERATING SECURITY EVENT CORRELATION RULES THROUGH K-MEANS CLUSTERING.
In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on e-Business and Telecommunication Networks, pages 376-381
DOI: 10.5220/0001417903760381
Copyright
c
SciTePress
2 SECURITY EVENT
CORRELATION (SEC)
Security event correlation, also called security alert
correlation, consists of relating alerts collected by
several sensors in order to improve the reasoning used
to decide whether an attack is taking place or not.
Since each new sensor can potentially monitor addi-
tional information about the behaviour of a system,
then by increasing the number of different sensors
used to generate alerts, one can obtain a more com-
plete picture of network activity on which to base an
analysis. Such an analysis can assist in rejecting false
positives generated by IDSs due to a lack of corrobo-
rating alerts.
In this section we introduce the nomenclature com-
monly employed to describe security events, the main
data sources used by correlation algorithms and some
examples of how correlation can be employed to im-
prove the detection process.
2.1 Definitions
The following terms are commonly employed to de-
scribe network security correlation systems and will
be used throughout the remainder of this paper:
Event – a change in the state of a system.
Alert a message triggered by an entity (hard-
ware or software) in response to the occurence of
an event.
Attack a deliberate attempt to compromise
the security of a system, normally violating the
adopted security policy. It is worthwhile mention-
ing that an attack may be comprised of a single or
multiple steps.
Data source a source of information that can be
used by the correlation process.
Sensor a component responsible for monitor-
ing system elements and raising alerts when pre-
configured conditions are met.
Correlation rule – a set of logical expressions that
describe the relationship between alerts and the ac-
tions to be taken when the rule is satisfied. A rule
should be specific enough as to allow the proper de-
tection of the fingerprint of an attack whilst simul-
taneously flexible enough to recognize variations.
2.2 Data Sources
Sensors can monitor several components (data
sources), be they software or hardware, and trigger
alerts when certain conditions occur. As present, there
exists no standardized format for generating alerts.
Each sensor implementation specifies its own format,
thus requiring an ad-hoc treatment for every sensor.
In order to simplify the manipulation of event data,
normalization can be performed prior to executing the
correlation algorithm. One initiative in this direction
is that of the IETF’s Intrusion Detection Message Ex-
change Format (IDMEF) which defines a normaliza-
tion schema for information generated by IDSs (De-
bar et al., 2005).
The following list of data sources (sensors) for net-
work security event correlation is based upon (Yin
et al., 2003) and it is not intended to be exhaustive:
Firewalls can be used to monitor the types of ser-
vices requested and used, common external IP ad-
dresses accessing internal services, port scans and
outbound connections.
Intrusion detection systems aim to detect mali-
cious or suspicious activity against a system.
Operating systems can be configured to log lo-
gin attempts, resource access, program usage and
system rebooting.
Routers can log system errors, network and inter-
face state changes and traffic violating access con-
trol lists.
SMTP can record the address of the sender and
receiver, the date and time of the transmission and
the message size.
SNMP – SNMP agents can notify events that occur
in monitored elements according to their respective
management information base (MIB).
Web servers can log diagnostic information,
processing errors, successful requests, and the in-
put and output of server scripts.
2.3 Some Examples
The following examples aim to capture the essence
of security event correlation, showing how it can be
employed to lower the false positive rate whilst im-
proving the detection rate.
Our first example is a simple one. Suppose that
an intrusion detection system detects an IP packet
whose payload can exploit a vulnerability in an IIS
Web server and triggers an alert for the target (desti-
nation IP). If the target is actually running the Apache
Web server, rather than the Microsoft one, then such
an alert is clearly a false positive and should not be
sent to the system administrator. This example illus-
trates how the use of more than one data source, in
this case IDS data with an inventory of applications
running on each destination IP, can contribute to for-
mulating a better conclusion.
Our second example is related to the notification of
new vulnerabilities. One of the functionalities to be
included in the Open-Source Vulnerability Database
ICETE 2005 - SECURITY AND RELIABILITY IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS
376
(OSVDB) project is the automation of vulnerability
queries satisfying predetermined conditions. After
being notified, the system administrator can look for
the vulnerable machines and apply the proper patches
or workarounds. However, often there might not be
machines in the system affected by the vulnerability
just found. A better approach would consist of letting
the correlation module run a cross-check of the inven-
tory information in order to trigger patch alerts only
for susceptible machines.
Our third example is taken from (Jiang and Cy-
benko, 2004). Worms, such as CodeRed and Nimda,
randomly scan IP addresses searching for potential
targets. Since many of the IP addresses tested are
not assigned to a network, the scanning process can
generate a large volume of ICMP host unreachable
messages. The worm propagation may also affect the
network latency and the Border Gateway Protocol.
By correlating information and releasing an alert sig-
nalling the occurrence of a worm only when all three
events occur simultaneously, the possibility of emit-
ting a false positive is greatly reduced. Another cor-
relation approach could be to consider the volume of
ICMP messages generated as a function of time and
trigger an alert only if this measure follows a temporal
pattern related to the stages of the worm lifecycle.
For a more complete example, we refer the reader
to (Drew, 2003) who presents a more complex sce-
nario where correlation can be used to detect attacks
exploring vulnerabilities in CGI scripts.
2.4 Some Correlation Techniques
Several correlation techniques have been proposed in
the literature so far. In this section we discuss three of
them in order to illustrate how they work and to show
that, essentially, they all rely on the same basic in-
formation, though expressed in different formats. We
do not consider heuristic algorithms because they can
not take advantage of the correlation rule generation
mechanism we propose in this paper.
The approach presented in (Yemini et al., 1996) is
based on coding techniques and explores the fact that,
in general, a particular problem can be identified by
a set of symptons. Thus, each problem (in our case,
each attack) is associated to a code representing the
induced symptons. The correlation process is divided
into two phases: in the selection phase, one chooses
a subset of the possible events to be used in the detec-
tion process. This subset, called the codebook, must
be optimal in the sense that it is sufficient to distin-
guish between different types of attacks. In the de-
coding phase, the events in the codebook are mon-
itored and analyzed in real-time to determine when
known attacks are occuring. Put another way, the cor-
relation can be seen as the analysis of causal relation-
ships between events represented as codes.
(Ning et al., 2002) propose the use of prerequisites
of intrusions as a means to correlate security alerts. A
prerequisite of intrusion is the set of necessary con-
ditions for an attack to be successful. For example,
an attack against a vulnerability in the IIS Web server
requires that the target machine runs the affected ver-
sion of that software. In turn, the system state to be
reached as a result of the attack is called the (possible)
consequence of the attack. As we have already men-
tioned, an attack might be composed of several steps.
In such cases, the consequence of any step (obviously
excluding the last one) must be the prerequisite of
the subsequent one. In this way, the triple (attributes,
prerequisite, consequence) defines a hyperalert type
which models the atomic actions an attacker must ex-
ecute to complete the attack. Correlation then consists
of finding instances of hyperalert types connected by
consequence/prerequisite.
A third correlation technique is the application
of chronicles to event correlation, as introduced by
(Morin and Debar, 2003). Chronicles are temporal
patterns that represent a possible evolution of the sys-
tem being observed. To quote the authors: “chronicles
provide a framework for modeling dynamic systems.
They include an evolution monitoring mechanism to
track changes in the modeled system. Recognition of
chronicles is based on a formalism in which time is
fundamental”. A chronicle is composed of a set of
predicates and temporal constraints and can be used
to model attack scenarios. As events are being de-
tected, the recognition process filters those chronicles
whose predicates are violated. When a chronicle has
all its assertions satisfied an alert is triggered.
Comparing the three approaches described above,
we can see that a correlation algorithm is comprised
of a knowledge base (used to describe attack scenar-
ios) and a detection process. As such, one can say that
all correlation techniques are essentially the same;
their only difference is the format in which the cor-
relation knowledge is represented. This is an impor-
tant point as it implies that a mechanism for semi-
automatically generating correlation rules may be in-
dependent of the correlation technique to be used.
One just needs a way of mapping the derived rules
to the specific knowledge representation employed by
a particular algorithm. However, it must also be high-
lighted that certain temporal constraints cannot be
represented by every algorithm. An example could be
a constraint that requires a certain time interval (win-
dow) between two events.
3 DATA MINING
Over the last decade, data mining has emerged as
a promising analytical technique to detect hidden
GENERATING SECURITY EVENT CORRELATION RULES THROUGH K-MEANS CLUSTERING
377
Table 1: Principal data mining techniques
Technique Description
Classification Prediction of the category to
which a particular record belongs
Association
rules
Determines the correlation and
causality between sets of objects
Clustering Separation of data into subsets
that share common properties
Statistical
analysis
Determines the likelihood of
characteristics and associations in
the selected data
Visualization Presents a graphical summary of
the data
knowledge (i.e. relationships and behaviours that can
be described by rules, regularities, patterns and con-
straints) from within large volumes of data. It has
been used in many fields and for various goals, such as
market analysis, risk analysis and detecting unusual
patterns that are often indicative of fraud or unusual
behaviour (Han and Kamber, 2000).
Table 1 lists the principal data mining techniques.
Classification is an example of supervised data min-
ing, whose goal is to use available data to build a
model that can be used to describe (classify) the rest
of the available data. The remaining techniques in
Table 1 are examples of unsupervised data mining. In
these cases, no variable is singled out as the target;
instead, the goal is to establish relationships amongst
the variables.
In the information security area, various data min-
ing techniques have been applied to the study of alerts
from IDSs. However, despite the large gamma of ex-
periments that have been performed (Brugger, 2004),
little work has been directed at using this technique
to generate event correlation rules. It is this area that
will be explored in our work.
In this section, we present a brief overview of the k-
means clustering algorithm and discuss relevant data
mining experiments that have been performed in this
area.
3.1 K-means technique
In the case of unsupervised learning, clustering tech-
niques are the most appropriate as, a priori, they do
not require any initial knowledge. In our work, we
have concentrated on using the k-means partitioning
algorithm to perform the clustering, whose steps are
listed below:
1. Choose a value for k, the total number of clusters.
2. Randomly choose k points as cluster centers.
3. Assign the remaining instances to their closest clus-
ter center.
4. Calculate a new cluster center for each cluster.
5. Repeat steps 3-5 until the cluster centers do not
change.
Every point (or element) is a data object that
is composed of various attributes. A similar-
ity/dissimilarity metric is used to perform Steps 3 and
4 and is calculated as a function of all such attributes.
In general, the k-means technique requires real-
valued data and one must preselect the number of
clusters present in the data. Whilst the technique
lacks explanation capabilities and the ability to at-
tribute significance to the observed clusters, we argue
that it can be employed as a useful tool to separate
non-frequent alerts from frequent alerts, enabling an
expert to concentrate his analysis on the former when
generating SEC rules. As was illustrated by (Burns
et al., 2000) and (Manganaris et al., 2000), it is the
non-frequent events that are of more interest for de-
tecting malicious activity.
3.2 Previous data mining results
At present, we are only aware of two other experi-
ments in which data mining techniques have been em-
ployed for semi-automatic rule generation. (Burns
et al., 2000) have used frequency analysis and vi-
sualization techniques to assist an expert in recog-
nizing interesting patterns of activity that can sub-
sequently be incorporated into correlation rules for
event management. Whilst this technique has been
demonstrated to work, we argue that it relies heavily
upon manual input from an expert user to visualize
the non-frequent behaviour. In our approach, k-means
clustering is a more efficient, non-interactive, method
for separating frequent from non-frequent behaviour.
In the second experiment, (Kreibich and Crowcroft,
2004) have employed honeypots to collect malicious
activity and have used pattern detection algorithms,
on the network traffic within the honeypot, to auto-
matically derive new intrusion detection signatures
for unknown attacks. Whilst the goal of this work
was not to generate correlation rules per se, the newly
detected signatures can subsequently be incorporated
into correlation rules. In future, this work could be
used to complement our approach. However, it should
be noted that our objective is slightly different; i.e. us-
ing data mining techniques to analyze the alerts emit-
ted by different types of network sensors, rather than
analyzing honeypot traffic.
Another relevant application of data mining tech-
niques, though not with the aim of generating cor-
relation rules, is that of (Manganaris et al., 2000).
This work performed association analysis on real-
time IDS data collected at a Network Operations Cen-
ICETE 2005 - SECURITY AND RELIABILITY IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS
378
ter (NOC). Two weeks of historical alerts were used
to model the association rules. Subsequently, the rules
were applied to the alerts collected at the NOC dur-
ing a separate week. The results were promising with
the authors detecting all of the incidents that had been
recorded manually by the NOC operators and, fur-
thermore, detecting three additional incidents that had
gone unnoticed at the NOC. This is practical proof of
the suitability of data mining to the incident detection
process.
As far as clustering technique is concerned, its use
to aid network intrusion detection is not new (Brug-
ger, 2004). However, the majority of this work has
been performed on common network traffic, in the
format described by the “libcap” libraries, and the
goal of these experiments has been to detect anom-
alous behaviour. In contrast, our work focuses on
clustering the alerts produced by IDSs and other net-
work sensors and our aim is to generate SEC corre-
lation rules. We consider our approach to be more
realistic in that, for today’s enterprise networks, it is
not feasible to collect traffic from a whole network for
training or analysis purposes.
4 GENERATING SEC RULES
4.1 Clustering experiment
In our initial experiment, a database of security events
was generated by collecting data for a period of six
weeks from a network-based Snort sensor installed
on a corporate DMZ. The IDS was placed on the same
network segment as the corporate Web, FTP and DNS
servers. It was configured with the most recent signa-
ture rules and, to perform the most general test possi-
ble, all classes of signatures were enabled in the rules
engine.
In order to be able to investigate the temporal de-
pendence of the alerts, we preprocessed the alert
data to form “connections”. Taking ts(A
i
) and
T (A
i
) to be, respectively, the timestamp and triple
(SourceIP (A
i
), DestIP (A
i
), DestP ort(A
i
)),
associated to the i-th alert A
i
, we defined a “connec-
tion” as a sequence A
1
, A
2
, ..., A
n
of alerts, that sat-
isfy the following requirements:
T (A
1
) = T (A
2
) = ... = T (A
n
)
A
i
, 1 i n 1 : ts(A
i+1
) ts(A
i
)
10 minutes
¬∃A
0
| ts(A
1
)ts(A
0
) 10 minutesT (A
0
) =
T (A
1
)
¬∃A
n+1
| ts(A
n+1
) ts(A
n
) 10 minutes
T (A
n+1
) = T (A
n
)
By applying the above definition our initial data set
of 170K alerts was reduced to 26K “connections” to
be used as input for the clustering analysis.
As pointed out in Section 3.1, the k-means cluster-
ing technique requires a similarity/dissimilarity func-
tion, which is based upon the attributes of the ele-
ments being clustered. In our experiment, the fol-
lowing “connection” attributes were considered: the
source IP, destination IP, and destination port of the
packet that triggered the alert; the connection’s du-
ration, the total number of alerts, the total number
of distinct signatures and signature classes, the total
number of SYN, RST, FIN and SYNFIN flags, the to-
tal number of alerts of each priority category and the
total number of alerts of each distinct signature class
and signature. All of the attributes were assigned the
same weight for the calculation of the similarity met-
ric.
The k-means clustering was applied to the connec-
tion data set with the number of clusters arbitrarily set
to 3, 5, 8 and 10. In all four cases, over 99% of “con-
nections” were grouped into one single cluster. As
for the remaining clusters, each contained “connec-
tions” for which certain attributes had a signficantly
different proportion than those observed in the other
clusters. We consider that the optimal number of clus-
ters in our experiment was 5. For k > 5 there were
very few “connections” in the additional clusters and
the connection attributes were very similar to those of
another cluster.
4.2 Mapping a cluster to a SEC rule
When clustering is employed to discover behaviour
that is very rare in the overall data set, it is a common
occurrence for nearly all of the data to be placed into
one cluster (assumed to be normal behaviour) and for
the remaining clusters to contain the rare (assumed
abnormal) behaviour. Applying this reasoning, our
initial assumption is that the biggest cluster is indica-
tive of normal behaviour (i.e. false-positives from the
IDS), and that the remaining clusters contain “con-
nections” with a greater proportion of real-positives,
i.e. non-frequent, malicious behaviour.
Each cluster is discerned from the others by a set
of attributes presenting uncommon values when com-
pared to the majority of the elements of the analysed
data set. In our case, the infrequent attribute values
correspond to unusual occurences of some types of
alerts within the same “connection”. Thus, a correla-
tion rule might be written for this attack fingerprint,
by specifying the detection condition as the occurence
of the peculiar set of alerts, within a certain time win-
dow.
GENERATING SECURITY EVENT CORRELATION RULES THROUGH K-MEANS CLUSTERING
379
4.3 Discussion and future work
We consider clustering to be an appropriate technique
for our purposes as it does not require the use of a la-
beled data set for training. As such, it is more appro-
priate for the analysis of IDS alerts (or those produced
in abundance from the logs of network devices) where
the outcome of the suspicious activity cannot be clas-
sified as malicious (real-positive) or non-malicious
(false-positive) a priori. A known limitation of the k-
means technique is that it is sensitive to extreme val-
ues or outliers (Han and Kamber, 2000). In our case,
we consider this fact to be beneficial and our aim is to
explore this property to cluster anomalous behaviour
that is infrequent within the network traffic.
Our next steps are to perform further experiments
to confirm whether the assumption presented in Sec-
tion 4.2 is valid and under what conditions. To this
end, we propose to use results from Honeypot ex-
periments to classify combinations of alerts known to
be associated with malicious behaviour and compare
these to the results obtained from clustering. Further-
more, future work will incorporate alerts from a wide-
variety of network devices (firewalls, routers, appli-
cation servers, etc.) and we expect that such a richer
information base will yield more accurate correlation
rules (as discussed in Section 2.3).
The time parameter used for the “connection” de-
finition, i.e. the allowed time interval between two
subsequent alerts (Section 4.1), also needs to be ex-
plored. Values other than the 10 minutes employed
in the first experiment need to be tested to determine
how this influences the clusters obtained. It is logical
that the smaller this value is, the more difficult it will
be to catch attacks perpetrated at a slower rate. On the
other hand, if this paramenter is too large, it may in-
duce the creation of “connections” of unrelated alerts
that happen to fall within this window.
Finally, we plan to test whether repeatedly apply-
ing the clustering algorithm to the smaller clusters is
beneficial to providing a more detailed determination
of the inter-relationships between the alerts. The al-
ternative approach would be to choose a bigger value
for the parameter k (the number of clusters).
5 CONCLUSION
We have discussed the limitations of IDSs and how
the correlation of events from various network ele-
ments can be used to improve the intrusion detection
rate and reduce the number of false-positives. As the
generation of correlation rules is a time-consuming
task that requires expert knowledge, semi-automatic
techniques that can assist this process are clearly de-
sirable. To this end, we propose the use of data min-
ing to separate frequent (false-positives) from non-
frequent behaviour. In succession, logical expressions
for correlation rules can be written focusing solely on
the latter. Our initial results suggest that this tech-
nique is promising, though more tests are needed to
formulate a precise conclusion.
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