Development based on Local Wisdom

Musta'in

Department of Sociology, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia

Keywords: Local Wisdom, Development Theory, Paradigm, Developing Countries.

Abstract: Development theories adept to the dialectic of human progress. The dominant development theory in

developing country is modernism. Progress in development theory is historically classified in two

generations. There are also alternatives to conventional development theory namely people oriented

development theory and local wisdom development theory. People or human centered development is

important because when quality of life is improved, then societal progress will be achieved. Local wisdom

is the ability of a society to develop and sustain itself without being connected to the modern developmental

paradigm. Citanduy and Subak Bali are chosen as example for a well-established local wisdom

development. Modernization does not develop a developing country, but it develops in developing

countries; it has destructive effect because the public plays the role of a spectator, not a developer. That is

why, local wisdom based community-oriented development is important to be implemented in developing

country because the capitalists do not act as developer but instead the community is the developer.

1 INTRODUCTION

Paradigm, perspective, theory, including ideology

and development theory, will always evolve

following the dialectic of the human thought

development in accordance with the changing of the

culture and the civilization of society. Adelman

(2004) identified 3 (three) changing factors of

development theory. First, ideological changing.

Each generation has a different socio-economic

reality base and divergent policy prescriptions.

Second, revolution and technological innovation.

The great success of the information and the

revolution of communication technology impacts on

the economic activity. For example, the inception of

knowledge-based economy development paradigm.

Third, the changing of international environment

(globalization). Economic globalization has made

the economic activity among nations more

integrated (borderless economy). The critical

outcome and the theoretical reformulation and

established development paradigm, the human

development paradigm (human development

paradigm).

Development, in developing countries generally uses

developmentism (modernism) ideology.

Developmentism is seen as an "evolutionary"

process of the underdeveloped society toward a

more advanced society. Modernization theory began

in the 1940s, especially on January 20, 1949, when

the President of USA (Hary S Truman) made

development policy for third world countries. He

said that "the world should get "Fair democratic

deal" through US intervention to resolve the

problem of global poverty. Truman's policy becomes

the milestone of developmetalism discourse in the

world until today.

Since the 1950s-1960s, developmentalism was

produced by American Social Science theorists to

demonstrate (and determine the choice) the future

dream to a newly independent third world society.

For that purpose, social scientists have developed

discourse academic concepts development through

The Center for International Studies in

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) United

States.

One of the result is a development and

modernization concept. Social scientists and the

US private sector provide enormous assistance in

various fields to third world countries. The result is

the birth of a new generation of political scientists,

economists and experts of Sociology, Psychology,

Anthropology and Population experts with

dissertations and monographs of the Third World so

294

Musta’in, .

Development based on Local Wisdom.

DOI: 10.5220/0009901800002480

In Proceedings of the International Conference on Natural Resources and Sustainable Development (ICNRSD 2018), pages 294-299

ISBN: 978-989-758-543-2

as to form a stream of multidisciplinary perspectives

that incorporated in a school of thought of

modernization. Since then, studies of the

modernization theory had turned into "industry"

until the mid-1960s.

As this discourse has become part of US foreign

policy, with the enormous support power of

American political influence has succeeded in

making the concept of developmentalism as massive

ideas and doctrine throughout the world. This

political doctrine of development is introduced both

conceptually (academically) as well as through

various US aids and foreign technology, which is

implemented by USAID. Since then, almost all

governments of third world countries, NGO,

educational institutions in the west have

simultaneously made this discourse as a new trade.

Starting from that moment, almost all universities in

the world opened a new study program about

"developmental studies".

The dominative influence of America in influencing

the development paradigm in most third world

countries (underdeveloped countries) is completely

successful. These newly independent poor countries

cannot resist the concept of ex-Marshal Plan (the

importance of capital, the orientation of GNP, the

role of a strong State and social transformation) in

the development program.

Conceptually, developmental studies make the

Marshall Plane concept which in its follow-up also

contains the process of absorption of capitalism

accelerated worldwide, through technocrats,

intellectual NGO, third world leaders which become

the main targets of the program. Therefore, it is not

exaggerated to say that modernization is a historical

product of Marshal Plane program which then puts

the United States (US) as the dominant power of the

world; followed by other Western countries

(England, France and Germany weakened). The

economic strength of the United States practically

makes it world-class controller, starting in the

1950s.

Since then, the concept and implementation of a

world development paradigm under the control of

the modernization concept of America and the

European countries is referred by almost all

developing countries. The development policy's

orientation and choice spawns inter-contestative

dynamics stakeholders both in the process, its

implementation and its problematic impact over

decades. Critics of the developmentalism which later

got the Nobel are Jan Tinbergen (1960s the Nobel

Laureate), Simon Kuznets (1970s), John Nash

(1990s) to Amartya Sen. 

2 DISCUSSION

Since the era of modernization (developmentalism),

the dynamical progress of development theories can

be grouped into some generations:

First generation (1950 - 1970)

Since 1940 - 1950s, post World War II, western

economists had successfully introduced the concept

of development to newly independent countries,

especially about 4 (four) fundamental issues: (i)

growth, (ii) capital accumulation, (iii) structural

transformation, and (iv) role of the government.

These four issues are central themes that became the

main study in the evolution of first generation

development thinking (1950-1975) as the arena of

academic debate within a quarter of a century.

Basic concepts of developmentalism are capital,

investment and industrialization. These are the main

driving forces for structural transformation. It is

assumed that there will be a leap of development

from a subsistence agrarian economy to an

industrial-based economic development. With

industrialization, it will absorb a lot of labor which

then becomes one of the main elements in the

production process. If the production process is

running well, the national income will be able to

increase rapidly. The logic of such linear thinking

(in fact) is parallel with the pundits of the

neoclassical and structuralist schools of economics

development such as Paul Rosestein-Rodan (1944),

Ragnar Nurkse (1952), Arthur Lewis (1955), and

Irma Adelman (1961): "Capital accumulation,

investment, and well-designed industrialization are

very crucial components to accelerate

development.". To implement the industrialization

development concept, the role of a strong State is

required.

Strong countries control the market and manage

economic transactions despite of being a source of

criticism. The opposition argue that not the strength

of state control (which is counterproductive and

inefficient), but the importance of deregulation and

de-bureaucratization in order to foster efficient

economic development and develop a healthy

market climate. The crucial issue, then, becomes

bone of contention, emerging the mainstream of

neoliberal thinking, which emphasizes on three

policy prescriptions namely: (i) deregulation, (ii)

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privatization, and (iii) liberalization. "The essential

tenet of neoliberalism is the extraordinary

importance of attributed to market mechanisms;

prices in a market economy provide the best possible

information about the relative efficiency of many

possible combinations of physical and human

resources affecting the link between supply and

demand " (Stromquist, 2002).

Second Generation (Social Issue)

Despite of many weaknesses and criticisms, the

concept of first generation development must be

admitted creating important changes among the live

of third world communities. Many of the former

western colonies have been able to go to the stage of

modernization as a jumping point toward modern

life. Nevertheless, the development paradigm, which

is formulated by this first generation, continues to be

heavily criticized; because the 'success' of

development has (in fact) created imbalance and

inequality (polarization) and disparity which is

prominent in the community, making it vulnerable to

both vertical and horizontal conflicts; also

increasingly fettered the most basic human freedom.

This criticism is very well appreciated by second

generation development thinkers (1975-2004),

which focus more on four fundamental issues: (i)

income distribution, (ii) injustice, (iii) poverty, and

(iv) freedom and democracy.

These second-generation development thinkers are

generally more advanced in thinking with raising the

issue of freedom and democracy. The last issue has

already been voiced by sociologists, political

scientists and economists who pay great attention to

the development issue and the progress of political

democracy (Lipset 1959, Diamond & Linz 1995,

Amartya Sen 1999, Przeworzki& Alvarez 2000, and

Meier & Stiglitz 2002). They argued, in addition to

growth, increased national income, and capital

accumulation, the development needs to be able to

deliver a nation to a free and democratic political

life, reflected in the recognition that called as civil

rights and political liberty.

Looking at the previous theoretical conceptual

discussions of development, it shows how the

economists of each generation adjusted, renewed,

and altered the old development theories by

absorbing new ideas so as to remain relevant and

contextual with the spirit of the times (zeitgeist). The

emergence of a theory will undoubtedly be debated

by its advocates and opponents, to test its degree of

scientific validity.

The dialectics of the theoretical thinking of the

mainstream masterminds of the two-generational

development, also show the disparity and mismatch

between the development goals (which will prosper

the society) and the reality on the ground which is in

fact a lot of harm, imbalance and counterproductive.

Critical issues that emerged later received an

adequate appreciation; second-generation thinkers

seek to revise the basic premise of development

proposed by the first generation. In depth, there will

be adjustments, changes, and revisions to the theory

and development paradigm.

Based on the debate of development theory

perspective above, the history noted that the

emergence of a number of variants of new

paradigms in development such as growth with

distribution, basic needs, independent

development(self-reliant development), sustainable

development with attention to nature

(ecodevelopment), development that concerns with

the inequality income according to ethnicity

(ethnodevelomment) (Kuncoro, 2003).

Third Generation (People Oriented)

Success story of high economic growth in some

third world countries occurs despite having to be

accompanied by a number of social problems such

as inequality income distribution, unemployment,

rural poverty, and structural imbalance (Sjahrir,

1986). It may be that it reinforces the belief that

economic growth is a necessary but not sufficient for

the development process (Esmara, 1986, Meier,

1989 in Kuncoro, 2004). Economic growth only

notes an increasing in the production of goods and

services nationally, while development has wider

dimension than just an increasing of economic

growth.

Mahbub ulHaq, in his book Reflections on Human

Development (1995), stated the need for a change of

development paradigm from "national income

accounting" to "people-centered policy." The

paradigm shift that he meant "is concerned with

human capability through investment in people and

capturing the human capabilities through the

enabling framework for growth and employment. "

The human-centered development paradigm become

a central theme in the discourse of the debate on

development issues in the world. Development

orientation also shifted from macro economic goals

to attempt the strengthening of social development

(societal development). There are, at least, six

reasons why the human development paradigm is

considered as important: (a) development that aimed

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at improving human dignity; (b) eradicate poverty;

and improve over goods and services control; (d)

maintain natural conservation (environment) and

maintain ecosystem balance; (e) strengthen the civil

society base and political institutions to develop

democracy; and maintaining conducive socio-

political stability to the development implementation

(Kaushik Basu, On the Goals of Development,

2002).

Improved quality of human is a main prerequisite in

the production process and meets the demand of

industrial society. Another alternative to human

development strategy is called as people-centered

development or borrowing the term from Korten

(1981) as panting people first. It means that people

are the main purpose of development, the human

will and capacity are the most important resources. It

is clearly broader than simply forming professional

and skilled people to be useful in the production

process. The placement of human beings as the

subject of development emphasizes the importance

of human empowerment (empowerment), the human

ability to actualize all of their potential.

At least there are 4 (four) elements that must be

considered in people-oriented paradigm. First,

equality and similarity of communities in gaining

access to economic and political resources. Second,

empowerment which is aimed to develop capacity of

the community by transforming available potentials

and capabilities within, which lead to gain the

independence, autonomy, and authority in carrying

out the work and overcoming social problems.

Third, productivity as a result of economic and

human resource development, infrastructure and

financial planning to support economic growth,

which has an impact on improving the community

welfare. Fourth, sustainability (sustainability), in

other words, the ability to choose, to manage and to

care for development capital: physical, human,

financial, and environment in order to be utilized to

achieve the main purpose of development, the

welfare of community. Therefore, the refreshment,

renewal and preservation of development capital are

very important and necessary to maintain the

sustainability of the future development process.

Even the development of human quality particularly

needs to be designed based on the social investment

perspective (social investation) so that it has the

independence to manage the resources more optimal.

It is no longer a social investment policy fulfilling

basic needsmodel, but rather a social investment

policy that is oriented towards the restoration of

community's self-confidence so as to empower

themselves in overcoming the problems faced;

because in the globalization era, the government will

no longer be able to overcome the social problems

without community support.

Human-oriented development (community) must be

the main goal of development.

For this purpose, the

development strategy must be explored, prepared

and formulated based on the interests, needs and

potentials that available within the community.

Thus, every step of development must be oriented to

personal reinforcement (Human Resource

Development), self-reliance, productive and

investment value, based on local conditions and

potential: local wisdom. 

Local Wisdom

Local wisdom, according to Levitt (2003) become

not only as a process, revitalization product and

transformation of knowledge and culture, but also

customary practices. Furthermore, along with local

wisdom, it is possible for people to be able to

behave more strategic in negotiate with the exposure

of globalization stream which intends to equalize

human being in every aspects of life. There are three

points, as Levitt stated, that needs to be concerned:

(i) local wisdom is created by the member of

community itself; (ii) become a role model for the

member of the community in order to do their daily

activity; (iii) local wisdom cannot emerge itself, but

it is the result from revitalization and the

transformation of knowledge and culture, which has

social norm within (social norm).

Although local wisdom has various definitions, but a

number of similarities are perceivable, for example:

the presence of knowledge, ideas, values, skills,

experiences, behaviors, habits and customs that are

done by the community in specific area (Keraf,

2002; Ardana, 2005; Aprianto et al, 2008, Mukti,

2010; Yamani, 2011). Sunaryo (2003) viewed that

the knowledge and the experience of community

merge with norm systems, beliefs, solidarity,

expressed justice as the result of abstract custom and

their interaction with nature and their surroundings

in a long time. Therefore, it is natural that the local

wisdom can be a guideline in behaving and acting to

fulfill the requirement of community daily life

(Wardana, 2005).

Human efforts that always prepare to adapt for the

nature alteration and the need to organize themselves

in order to survive become the background of the

emerging of the social institutions, i.e. the local rules

that arise and develop through a long social process

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(through induction) so it become the basis in

regulating life and life together in a community. The

social rules are the ones to be locals collective

consciousness (Emile Durkheim). Local social rules

exist not only to manage about how living together

(horizontal) is done, but also to manage about how

the relationship with the power of Mighty One

(God), including about how to build life along with

noticing the natural environment. Thus, local

wisdom, at least, encompasses five social

dimensions, such as local knowledge, local culture,

local skills, local resources, and local social

processes (Aprianto et al, 2008).Particular kind of

social institutions are commonly called as local

wisdom (local wisdom)

The word, local wisdom (local wisdom), indicates

the ability of locals, who are often traditional and

live in remote areas. They capable to live and

survive with their own way; different and not even

logical for modern community. Local wisdom may

be the result of a long process of human adaptation

as a concept survival of the fittes Theory of

Evolution - community can live, grow and survive

because of their ability to adapt with nature

alteration. The nature that makes humans to adapt on

the nature alteration around them. The human

adaptation ability over their environment, then called

as social and culture institution as mentioned in WG

Sumner theory about the foundation of emerging and

developing social institution (social institution) -

social institutions begin with the human effort which

want to attempt everything they interest and must be

done to live in social order (social order).

Regarding its long process, the local wisdom is

actually the local community itself. It has unified

and integrated with the existence of community.

Locals, since the beginning of existence, have

managed to build life and live accordingly with their

natural environment. Therefore, local wisdom not

only serves as a guideline for community in

managing the living together, but also organizes life

thoroughly and comprehensively both in dealing

with nature, with God, with adikodrati powers.

Local wisdom, eventually, is a positive human

behavior in dealing with nature and the environment

that can be sourced from religious values, customs,

ancestors or local cultures that build naturally in a

community to adapt with the environment (Wietoler

2006).

Local wisdom encompasses five social dimensions,

such as local knowledge, local culture, local skills,

local resources, and local social processes (Aprianto

et al, 2008). These five dimensions can be illustrated

in the example of water management on Citanduy

watershed and Subak Bali as follows.

Local knowledge about the making of water

flow from bamboo and planting dadap and kiara

tree by Bingkeng DAS Citanduy villagers, and

making of river catcher building which is placed at

the edge of river by Subak farmer in Bali.

Local culture such as prohibition (taboo and

pamali) by the people in the Citanduy Watershed,

and the concept of Tri Hita Karana by the

community (Subak) in Bali.

Local skills form as making the flow of water

in the Cintanduy watershed, and the construction

of water catchers / empelan that can be adjusted if

required in Subak Bali.

Local sources along with utilization of local

potential, such as dadap trees in the Citanduy

basin, and irrigation tunnels are curved to rely on

the strength of the original rocks in Subak.

Local social processes in the form of

keramatisasi management of water resources in

the Citanduy watershed, and before-work ritual

ceremonies in the fields in Subak Bali.

Communities meet their water needs by utilizing and

managing the water resources in their area, in

accordance with local wisdom that has been

practiced for generations. The form or type of local

wisdom varies according to community and area, but

as social source, local wisdom has the same

universal value, namely mutual assistance and

helping each other to get the water and preserving its

resources (Hidayati, 2016). According to her

opinion, the existence of local wisdom in the

management of water resources in Indonesia,

unfortunately, has decreased. This condition is

illustrated by less implementation of the abundance

of local values, and in many places, the existence of

local wisdom has been 'ignored' and remains a

community story.

Locals in the world may need to learn from

Vandana Shiva when voicing the impact of

globalization on the life of the Indian community.

Local communities in India exists and survive from

the flow of globalization with its own style, form

and way. Community of Pattuvam Panchayat can

really show its independence without interference

from other parties, including the government. They

work on every aspect naturally such as agriculture

which is free from chemical substances, planting

trees to compensate for logging and destruction of

the environment, etc. What does the Pattuvam

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Panchayatcommunity do? As the resistance to the

capitalistic modern style development which is good

to be a reflection that the adverse effect that emerge

from capitalistic economy development which needs

to create the movement to slowing and decreasing

the adverse effect of globalization. Therefore, it is

necessary that the "local wisdom" owned by each

region or community to "fight" the rapid flow of

globalization.

3 CONCLUSION

The choice of an economic-oriented development

strategy with the support of political stability (the

role of a strong state) should be recognized,

obviously, as a difficult choice for developing

countries. The choice of development-oriented

developmentalism through industrialization as the

Marshaalplane Program are, of course, different

(opposite) to the needs of community development

in mostly newly independent countries that are

generally agriculture-based. The development

strategy that depends on the growing cannot gain the

welfare, but it is distortive and causing social

polarization.

Therefore, it can be understood that the

modernization style is judged as not developing the

country, but it develops in developing country. If

developing country development means to develop

for benefit of the community within (constructive).

In fact, it develops in Developing country, then the

outcome is deconstructive (destructive): the public

will only be a spectator of development, not as a

developer. Community-oriented development

(people oriented) is based on the existing condition

of local wisdom (local wisdom), i.e. development,

and for society: develop the community; Not

develop in society as which has been generally done

in many developing countries, the developer are the

capitalists; not community.

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