Designing Instructional Animation for Psychomotor Learning

A Conceptual Framework

Terry Lucas

1,2

and Ruslan Abdul Rahim

Faculty of Art & Design, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40460, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Faculty of Applied & Creative Arts, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

Keywords: Instructional Animation, Psychomotor Learning, Virtual Human Representation, Instructional Video Design,

Conceptual Framework, Instructional Media, Visual Communication.

Abstract: Research on the effectiveness of animated virtual human representation towards psychomotor learning is still

lacking. Recent studies show that animation is effective in learning procedural tasks. Instructional animation

is a form of animation designed to educate viewers. The purpose of this paper is to lay out a conceptual design

framework for studies of the instructional animation design for psychomotor learning. Three theoretical

approaches are considered in constructing the conceptual framework: (1) Learning Theories; (2) Instructional

Video Design; and (3) Virtual Human Representation. Together, these theoretical fields complement one

another and explain different viewpoints on this complex subject. Relating to earlier studies on types of visual

representation may elucidate the ways in which animation can be applied for motor skill acquisition.

1 INTRODUCTION

Instructional videos are commonly used as

supplemental materials to enhance learning during

lecture or tutorials (Kay, 2014). Instructional videos

can be in a form of live action video or animation or

even both (hybrid). In addition, there are numerous

Web 2.0 technologies and platforms that can provide

many options for video creation (Martin, 2012).

Besides that, viewers can also view these videos from

the comfort of their computer desktops at home to

their handheld devices on the go. Simultaneously,

educational video is gaining back its popularity due

to the adoption of Massive Open Online Course

(MOOC) to counter the rising cost of higher

education (Baggaley, 2013).

Animation and live action video possess different

visual characteristics. According to Ploetzner and

Lowe (2012), live action video cannot readily portray

the explanatory abstractions as well as expository

animations. Live action video may unable to

demonstrate hypothetical cases or non-visual aspect

of a subject matter. Compared to animation, live

action video may unable to show visual information

that is hidden form the camera and may only be able

to present information in a non-selective manner.

They also added that animation has more flexibility

as it can manipulate portrayal of the subject matter

through abstraction and visuo-spatial reorganization

(Ploetzner and Lowe, 2012).

Several studies have shown that instructional

animation can facilitate motor skill learning (Ayres,

Marcus, Chan, and Qian, 2009; Höffler and Leutner

2007; Wong, Marcus, Ayres, Smith, Cooper, Paas,

and Sweller, 2009). A study conducted by Ayres et al.

(2009) shows that animation allows learners to learn

faster than learning with static graphics. In this study,

participants were asked to learn knot tying and solve

ring puzzles. Based on the study, in which learning

was purely based on observation, the researchers

concluded that students learn more from the

animation mode then the static one. They believed

that the reason instructional animation was more

effective than static graphics was, perhaps, due to the

human’s inherent ability to learn human-movement

based task through observation of the activity being

performed. Interestingly, learners with low spatial

ability can also benefit by learning via animation as

such form of visualization “provides learners with an

external representation of a process or procedure that

assists them to build an adequate mental model”

(Höffler, 2010, p.249) and “helps in reducing the

processing demands necessary to forming a mental

model and encoding it into long-term memory”

(Höffler and Leutner 2011, p.210). For instance, there

are usually instructional graphics located on most

gym equipment. A beginner may find it more useful

313

Lucas T. and Abdul Rahim R..

Designing Instructional Animation for Psychomotor Learning - A Conceptual Framework.

DOI: 10.5220/0005477303130318

In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (CSEDU-2015), pages 313-318

ISBN: 978-989-758-108-3

 2015 SCITEPRESS (Science and Technology Publications, Lda.)

to learn about the proper usage of the exercise

machine via instructional animation as compared to

static instructional graphics.

Hence, this position paper proposes a conceptual

design framework to create instructional animation

for psychomotor learning or motor skill acquisition.

The framework focuses on integrating three deemed

relevant components which are: (1) learning theories;

(2) instructional design; and (3) virtual human

representation.

2 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

FRAMEWORK

2.1 The Learning Theories

In order to design an effective instructional animation

or video for psychomotor learning, a few relevant

learning theories need to be briefly discussed. These

theories are Psychomotor Learning, Experiential

Learning, and Cognitive Theory of Multimedia

Learning.

2.1.1 Psychomotor Learning

Motor skills are activities or tasks that require

voluntary head, body and/or limb movement to

achieve a goal. Modeling is a way to acquire new

motor skill movements. It is the “interaction between

a model and an observer where the observer’s

behaviors are adapted to match the technique and

outcome of the model” (Sakadjian et al. 2013).

Therefore, it is imperative that the demonstrator

perform the skill precisely (Magill, 2011). The quality

of the performance resulting from observing a

demonstration is related to the quality of

demonstration as coordination information and

perceived strategic information are acquired. Both

Magill (2011) and Sakadjian et al. (2013) agreed that

the transfer of information from the model to the

observer is crucial. Plus, they asserted that the

retention of information is essential in order to have

positive gain from such activity.

2.1.2 Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is defined as “the process

whereby knowledge is created through the

transformation of experience. Knowledge resulted

from the combination of grasping and transforming

experience” (Kolb 1984, p.38). The theory assumes

that learning is an reiterative process of creating

knowledge through the interaction between the

person and the environment (Kolb and Kolb 2005).

According to Kolb, there are four cycles of actions in

an experiential learning. The stages are as follows: (1)

Reflective Observation is gained when the learner

consciously reflect and review on the experience; (2)

Abstract Conceptualization is gained when the

learner can conceptualize a theory or model and

utilize these generalizations as guides to engage in

further action (Chan, 2012); (3) Active

Experimentation is gained when the learner plans and

tries out the knowledge learned from the experience;

and (4) Concrete Experience is gained when the

learner is performing, doing or having an experience.

2.1.3 Cognitive Theory of Multimedia

Learning

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning is a

collection of evidence-based multimedia learning

principles. Mayer (2009) explained that this theory is

based on three assumptions: (1) people have separate

visual and auditory channels; (2) the channels are

limited in capacity; and (3) meaningful learning

involves actively selecting, organizing, and

integrating incoming visual and auditory information.

He also asserted that multimedia is especially useful

for learners who have low-prior knowledge about the

subject matter. It is also suitable to teach complex

materials in a faster paced to learners. The principles

of this theory are divided into three main categories

such as: (1) managing essential processing (pre-

training principles, segmenting and modality

principle); (2) minimizing extraneous processing

(coherence principle, redundancy principle, signaling

principle, temporal contiguity principle, and spatial

contiguity principle); and (3) facilitating generative

processing (multimedia principle, personalization

principle, voice principle and image principle)

(Mayer, 2009).

The application of Cognitive Theory of

Multimedia Learning Theory in designing of the

instructional animation for motor skill acquisition can

be significant as the theory may be able to make the

animation effective for learning.

2.2 Instructional Video Design

It is essential that the instructional design of

instructional animation or video is based on the

grounds of established learning theories. Several

studies (Baggaley 2013; van der Meij and van der

Meij, 2013; Swarts, 2012) have proposed guidelines

and principles that can be incorporated into the design

of instructional animation or video.

CSEDU2015-7thInternationalConferenceonComputerSupportedEducation

314

Baggaley (2013), Swarts (2012) and Carliner (2000)

classified characteristics that constitute to good

instructional video design. Some of their findings

(refer to Table 1) are similar in terms of Simplicity,

Specificity and Appeal (S.S.A.).

Table 1: Common findings on characteristics of good

instructional videos.

Carliner

(2002)

Baggaley

(2013)

Swarts (2012) Similarity

(S.S.A.)

Cognitive

Design

Straight

forward &

consistent

Easy to

understand

Simplicity

Physical

Design

Explicit Detailed

demonstration

Specificity

Affective

Design

Motivating Engaging Appeal

To note, Physical Design is a design that directs users

to a desired message. Cognitive Design is a design

that assists users to comprehend the desired message.

Affective Design is a design that facilitates viewers to

be engaged with and feel comfortable about the

desired message (Carliner, 2000).

Meanwhile, van der Meij and van der Meij (2013)

provided eight design guidelines of instructional

videos for software training. Despite that these

guidelines are meant for software training, it is also

possible to apply it in the instructional video for

motor skill acquisition because the essence of motor

skill learning is also procedurally based. The

guidelines are as follows: (1) provide easy access; (2)

use animation with narration; (3) enable functional

interactivity; (4) preview the task; (5) provide

procedural rather than conceptual information; (6)

make tasks clear and simple; (7) keep video short; and

(8) strengthen demonstration with practice (van der

Meij and van der Meij, 2013).

Aside from the principles and guidelines provided

above, there are also several studies that have tested

several multimedia techniques that can facilitate

learning. Such related multimedia techniques are the

use of captioning, highlighting and video prompting.

To note, these multimedia techniques are also based

on the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

Despite being commonly used, the use of

captioning in videos receives mix responses. By using

captions, viewers will be exposed to spoken language,

digital text and visual information simultaneously.

Depending on the usage, it can either be distracting or

it can improve reading comprehension, vocabulary

and motivation (BavaHarji, Alavi, and Letchumana,

2014). However, after conducting their study on the

effects of captioning on English as Foreign Language

(EFL) learners, BavaHarji et al. (2014) concluded that

the use of captioning can facilitate language

proficiency and content comprehension.

According to Kay (2014), highlighting serves to

visually emphasize and direct viewers’ attention to a

certain issue, topic or mark. Highlighting can be

created by assigning different color, underlining,

circling or pointing arrow to the subject of interest

(Sweller, 2010; Pekerti, 2013).

Another recent study shows that the use of video

prompting can facilitate learning. Video prompting is

a modeling technique that allows the viewer to

perform a demonstrated step before moving on to the

next step (Cannella-Malone, Fleming, Chung,

Wheeler, Basbagill, and Singh, 2011). This technique

can be useful to teach action-based motor task to

beginners (Yanardag, Akmanoglu, and Yilmaz,

2013).

2.3 Virtual Human Representation

There are several design considerations to create a

digital character for demonstrative purposes. These

considerations can play significant roles in improving

the knowledge transfer through instructional

animation. Two points that need to be considered are

the target audiences’ preference and the types of

visual rendering (fidelity level) of the digital

character. These aspects can have an impact towards

the effectiveness of an instructional animation or

video.

2.3.1 Target Audience’s Preference

Understanding the preference of the target audience

that the instructional animation is designed for is

vital. Recently, there are two studies that focus on the

impact of animated characters on children’s

perception (Johnson, DiDonato, and Reisslein, 2013;

Tinwell and Sloan 2014). According to Johnson et al.

(2013), K-12 students prefer similar or relatable

physical dimensions such as age, gender and realism.

These findings can be attributed to the assumption

that humans are attracted to individuals who look and

act similarly to themselves (Byrne and Nelson, 1965).

In addition, Tinwell and Sloan (2014) conducted a

study on children’s perception of uncanny human-

like virtual characters. In this study, children between

the age of 9 and 11 years rated humans and human-

likeness figures. Their findings show that, similar to

adults, children also perceived human-like virtual

character as stranger, less friendly, and less human-

like than videos of real humans.

DesigningInstructionalAnimationforPsychomotorLearning-AConceptualFramework

315

2.3.2 Realism, Fidelity and Believability

Realism is defined as “attributes of a character where

the designer has intended that it be perceived as

realistically human-like and this covers aspects of,

and relationships between, appearance, motion,

behavior, sound and, in some cases, context”

(Tinwell, Grimshaw, and Williams, 2011, p.328).

Barrett (2003) stated that many assume that looking

‘realistic’ usually means looking like photograph. He

adds that in order to look realistic, the image has to be

‘closest to looking like’ things in the real world

(Barrett, 2003). Meanwhile, Fidelity is defined as

“the enjoyment of games that have realistic graphics

and sound effects, three-dimensional graphics, and

lifelike animation” (Quick, Atkinson, and Lin, 2012,

p.72). According to a study by Quick et al. (2012),

fidelity has an impact on player’s enjoyment in

learning through games. They urge that player’s

preference for fidelity should be gauged and

educational games should be constructed to match the

relevancy of the players’ preference on aesthetic.

Therefore, this fidelity characteristic can also be

considered while designing an effective and

enjoyable instructional animation.

Gulz and Haake (2005) conducted a study on

realistic versus iconic characters with respect to

involvement and engagement effects in users. They

have found that the types of visual style used to

represent a character depends on the function of the

character (Gulz and Haake, 2005). They argued that

pictorial realism can increase involvement and the

sense of presence in the digital environment (Gulz

and Haake, 2006). An iconized character allows

viewers to construct their character with their

subjective imagination, whereas, a highly realistic

character lack such allowance. For example, iconic

visualization may be more suitable if the focus is to

design a character that is rich in subjectivity and more

relationally oriented. On the other hand, if the focus

is to design an objective, task oriented character; a

realistic representation may be more suitable.

Humans are skilled at perceiving subtle details of

human motion (Hodgins, Wooten, Brogen, and

O'Brien, 1995). In order to create believable human

motion, Hodgin et al. (1995) suggested creating

digital character and virtual environments that appear

realistic when they move. The ways objects and

character move play a vital role in the creation of

believable animation (Coros and Martin, 2012). They

added that a realistic human motion is consisted of

two components: (1) the kinematics and dynamics of

the characters must be accurate; and (2) the

computational algorithm system must be able to allow

these characters to perform movements that appear

natural to the human eyes.

To add more realism to a character, its acting or

movement can be captured using motion capture

system. Motion capture can capture complex

movement in an accurate, smooth and fast way.

Lasseter (2001) stated that motion capture is more

suitable to capture realistic movement of human

actors. However, the drawback of using motion

capture is that it can be expensive and motion data

could not the reused for different kind of characters

(Sanna, Lamberti, Paravati, and Rocha, 2012).

Another point to note when creating believable

human-like performance is the secondary motion.

Secondary action is “an action that results directly

from another action” and “always kept subordinate to

the primary action” (Lasseter, 1987, p.42). Secondary

motion can add greatly to the perceived realism of an

animated scene (Hodgins et al., 1995). Examples of

secondary motions are random blinks to the eyes,

sinusoidal motion to the body to simulate breathing,

splashing of water and subtle cloth movement upon

collision (Hodgins et al., 1995; Ribeiro and Paiva,

2012). In addition, another technique to produce

secondary motion is the use of ‘moving hold’

(Lasseter, 2001). For example, there should be a

slight movement of the body parts (i.e. head or arm)

to keep a character looking alive.

Apart from the secondary movement, the location

or setting of the character performing the movement

is important. The environment in the animation scene

has to be able to accommodate the action of the

character easily (Guttmann, 2000). Guttmann (2000)

also suggested giving the background of the scene a

perspective because a background with perspective

lends realism and makes the animation portrayed to

be more natural.

3 DISCUSSION

Instructional animation can play important roles at the

Cognitive Stage of the Psychomotor Learning. The

authors believe that the cognitive stage of

Psychomotor Learning process intersects with two of

the Experiential Learning stages (refer to Figure 1).

As a viewer watches the demonstration of the motor

skill in the animation, the viewer is engaged in two

stages of experiential learning. Firstly, the viewer will

reflect and review the demonstration shown from the

animation. Then, the viewers will process the

information and form a model of the movement based

on the viewer’s comprehension and visual perception.

CSEDU2015-7thInternationalConferenceonComputerSupportedEducation

316

Figure 1: The Proposed Conceptual Design Framework for

Instructional Animation for Psychomotor Learning.

The proposed design framework is comprised of

Instructional Content and Presentation Techniques.

Based from previous studies, it can be implied that

focusing toward simplicity, specificity and appeal are

recommended in developing the content. For

example, the content has to be effortless, clear-cut

and interesting for the viewers. ‘Interesting’ can also

mean approachable for the viewer.

When it comes to the presentation techniques, two

areas that can be considered are the design of human

representation and the instructional design. The

criteria to consider for the digital character

demonstrating the motor skill are fidelity, realism of

animation and the environment in the digital space.

The instructional design aspect covers the

multimedia aspects of the instructional animation.

Here, Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning and

its Multimedia Techniques are to be considered in the

design because learning via animation involves the

visual and auditory modalities.

4 CONCLUSIONS

In sum, instructional animation has the capability to

facilitate psychomotor learning. Several fields of

studies such as learning theories, instructional video

design and virtual human representation are

considered in developing this framework. Although

the areas covered may not be exhaustive and the

framework is still at the conceptual stage, the authors

hope that this proposed design framework can be

utilized as a reference to design an effective

instructional animation that can be benefited in

various disciplines such as disability and

rehabilitation training, artistic performance training,

and sports training. Further study of this framework

is required to improve the design and determine the

potential and effectiveness of the framework.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research is supported by the SLAI scholarship

scheme from the Ministry of Education Malaysia.

REFERENCES

Ayres, P. et al., 2009. Learning hand manipulative tasks:

When instructional animations are superior to

equivalent static representations. Computers in Human

Behavior, 25(2), pp.348–353.

Baggaley, J., 2013. The sudden revival of educational

video. In Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 63rd Annual

Conference International Council for Education

Media, ICEM 2013. Singapore: IEEE, pp. 1–6.

Barrett, T., 2003. Interpretation and Appreciation: Abstract

Painting. In Intepreting Art: Reflecting, Wondering,

and Responding. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, pp.

87–110.

BavaHarji, M., Alavi, Z.K. & Letchumanan, K., 2014.

Captioned Instructional Video: Effects on Content

Comprehension, Vocabulary Acquisition and Language

Proficiency. English Language Teaching, 7(5), pp.1–

16.

Byrne, D. & Nelson, D., 1965. Attraction as a linear

function of proportion of positive reinforcements.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(6),

pp.659–663.

Cannella-Malone, H.I. et al., 2011. Teaching daily living

skills to seven individuals with severe intellectual

disabilities: A comparison of video prompting to video

modeling. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions,

13(3), pp.144–153.

Carliner, S., 2000. Physical, cognitive, and affective: A

three-part framework for information design. Technical

Communication, 47(4), pp.561–576.

Chan, C.K.Y., 2012. Exploring an experiential learning

project through Kolb’s Learning Theory using a

qualitative research method. European Journal of

Engineering Education, 37(4), pp.405–415.

Coros, S. & Martin, S., 2012. Deformable objects alive!

ACM Transactions on Graphics, 31(4), pp.1–9.

Gulz, A. & Haake, M., 2005. Social and Visual Style in

Virtual Pedagogical Agents. In Workshop: Adapting the

DesigningInstructionalAnimationforPsychomotorLearning-AConceptualFramework

317

Interaction Style to Affective Factors, 10th

International Conference on User Modelling (UM’05).

Edinburgh, Scotland, p. 8.

Gulz, A. & Haake, M., 2006. Virtual pedagogical agents –

design guidelines regarding visual appearance and

pedagogical roles. In The IV International Conference

on Multimedia and Information and Communication

Technologies in Education (mICTE 2006). pp. 1848–

1852.

Guttmann, G.D., 2000. Animating functional anatomy for

the web. The Anatomical Record, 261(2), pp.57–63.

Hodgins, J.K. et al., 1995. Animating Human Athletics. In

SIGGRAPH ’95 Proceedings of the 22nd Annual

Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive

Techniques. ACM, pp. 71–78.

Höffler, T.N., 2010. Spatial ability: Its influence on

learning with visualizations-a meta-analytic review.

Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), pp.245–269.

Höffler, T.N. & Leutner, D., 2007. Instructional animation

versus static pictures: A meta-analysis. Learning and

Instruction, 17(6), pp.722–738.

Höffler, T.N. & Leutner, D., 2011. The role of spatial ability

in learning from instructional animations - Evidence for

an ability-as-compensator hypothesis. Computers in

Human Behavior, 27, pp.209–216.

Johnson, A.M., DiDonato, M.D. & Reisslein, M., 2013.

Animated agents in K-12 engineering outreach:

Preferred agent characteristics across age levels.

Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), pp.1807–1815.

Kay, R.H., 2014. Developing a Framework for Creating

Effective Instructional Video Podcasts. International

Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 9(1),

p.22.

Kolb, A.Y. & Kolb, D.A., 2005. Learning Styles and

Learning Spaces : Enhancing Experiential Learning in

Higher Education. Academy of Management Learning

& Education, 4(2), pp.193–212.

Kolb, D.A., 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the

source of learning and development, New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall.

Lasseter, J., 1987. Principles of traditional animation

applied to 3D computer animation. ACM SIGGRAPH

Computer Graphics, 21(4), pp.35–44.

Lasseter, J., 2001. Tricks to animating characters with a

computer. ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics,

35(2), pp.45–47.

Magill, R.A., 2011. Motor learning and control: concepts

and applications 9th ed., McGraw-Hill.

Martin, C.M., 2012. One-minute video: marketing your

library to faculty. Reference Services Review, 40(4),

pp.589–600.

Mayer, R.E., 2009. Principles of Multimedia Design. In

Multimedia Learning. Cambridge University Press, pp.

265–280.

Van der Meij, H. & van der Meij, J., 2013. Eight Guidelines

for the Design of Instructional Videos for Software

Training. Technical Communication, 60(3), pp.205–

228.

Pekerti, A.A., 2013. Augmentation of information in

educational objects: Effectiveness of arrows and

pictures as information for actions in instructional

objects.

Australasian Journal of Educational

Technology, 29(6), pp.840–869.

Ploetzner, R. & Lowe, R., 2012. A systematic

characterisation of expository animations. Computers

in Human Behavior, 28(3), pp.781–794.

Quick, J.M., Atkinson, R.K. & Lin, L., 2012. The

Gameplay Enjoyment Model. International Journal of

Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations,

4(December), pp.64–80.

Ribeiro, T. & Paiva, A., 2012. The illusion of robotic life:

principles and practices of animation for robots. In 7th

ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot

Interaction (HRI), 2012. Boston, MA: IEEE, pp. 383–

390.

Sakadjian, A., Panchuk, D. & Pearce, A.J., 2013. I Look ,

Therefore I See . Using Action Observation in

Improving Strength and Conditioning Techniques.

Strength and Conditioning Journal, 35(2), pp.33–38.

Sanna, A. et al., 2012. A kinect-based interface to animate

virtual characters. Journal on Multimodal User

Interfaces, 7(4), pp.269–279.

Swarts, J., 2012. New modes of help: Best practices for

instructional video. Technical Communication, 59(3),

pp.195–206.

Sweller, J., 2010. Element Interactivity and Intrinsic,

Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load. Educational

Psychology Review, 22(2), pp.123–138.

Tinwell, A., Grimshaw, M. & Williams, A., 2011. The

Uncanny Wall. International Journal of Arts and

Technology (IJART), 4(3), pp.326–341.

Tinwell, A. & Sloan, R.J.S., 2014. Children’s perception of

uncanny human-like virtual characters. Computers in

Human Behavior, 36, pp.286–296.

Wong, A. et al., 2009. Instructional animations can be

superior to statics when learning human motor skills.

Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), pp.339–347.

Yanardag, M., Akmanoglu, N. & Yilmaz, I., 2013. The

effectiveness of video prompting on teaching aquatic

play skills for children with autism. Disability and

Rehabilitation, 35(1), pp.47–56.

CSEDU2015-7thInternationalConferenceonComputerSupportedEducation

318